common toad

Bufo bufo- toad representation

February 27, 2023 by Elizabeth Disdel

Elizabeth, our Transforming Lives Trainee, writes about how toads have been represented in the past and the present day:

Toads have gone through a major rebrand over the years. Whoever did PR for them did quite a good job, in my opinion.

In the UK, during Medieval times, toads were much feared. Most people believed that the humble toad was in fact the Devil incarnate; if you were to feed a toad a piece of consecrated bread, then you would turn into a witch or a wizard. The hatred of toads went so far that propaganda became truly out of hand – describing toads to have the ability to spit poison and breathe fire like tiny, fiendish dragons. Toads were said to do it all: eat people, spite people if they accidentally injured them, have venomous breath (I’m quite jealous as all of the aforementioned are on my bucket list for life). During the reign of King Stephen in the 1100s, prisoners were subjected to the ‘cold, hunger, stench, and the attacks of toads’ (I know many people here at Froglife that would argue that the so-called attacks of toads would actually be quite the entertainment on a dull day).

Romani Gypsy mythology looked upon toads more lovingly, with tales of a fairy Queen who lived in a toad-shaped castle clad with gold. Consequentially, women looking to become mothers would leave small toad statues at shrines. On the other hand, Estonian mythology lead people to believe that killing a toad was a pious act, and would excuse them of their sins for the next 9 days. In Scotland, apparently a toad’s dried tounge made you irresistible to women. In England, witches kept toads as familiars and it was thoughts that toad’s saliva (swelter’d venom) was mixed with the sap of sow-thistles and then used by a witch to paint onto themselves to become invisible. Toads have also been used for medicinal purposes, allegedly being able to heal rheumatism, scrofula, and toothache.

However, after the appearance of Mr. Toad of Toad Hall in the 1900s Wind In The Willows, the general sentiment towards toads in popular culture began to shift. In the 1970s, we had the series Catweazle which features his toad companion named Touchwood (positively named as something synonymous with luck). And in the 1980s, we were blessed with Captain Beaky and his band – featuring Timid Toad. And in food culture, we have the British classic – toad in the hole. If toads were still thought to be so frightful and Satanic, I’m sure we wouldn’t be tucking into that meal anytime soon.

What our animals are doing this month…

September 26, 2022 by admin

As we head into October and autumn our amphibians are finding places where they can overwinter.

The common toad will have spent most of the summer in its terrestrial phase where they have left their ponds in search of food. During daylight hours, they will have remained hidden under logs, stones, or leaf litter and will only appear at dusk and after dark to forage.

They typically move between 50-500m away from their ponds for foraging and their usual tactic is to sit and wait for food items to pass by. However, when autumn arrives, our common toad will return to areas near to their breeding pond (common toads always return to the breeding ponds where they were born). Before reaching the pond, they will find somewhere nearby to overwinter, this could be a hibernaculum, rockery, a hole in the ground or even a wall. Here they will stay to keep warm in the colder months.

The common frog is similar to the common toad wherein they will also begin overwintering in similar sites in October and November. Timing depends on location, altitude, and average daily temperature. Most common frogs do not emerge until February, however, on occasion the common frog is seen in mid-winter when weather conditions are milder.

The natterjack toad starts to disappear and overwinter a little later than the common toad and common frog, with it disappearing in late October to overwinter from November onwards. Where they choose to hibernate is still a bit of a mystery! but it could well be in sand dunes, in log or rock piles or mammal burrows.

Always remember to record your amphibian and reptile sightings on our FREE Dragon Finder app. All of the data collected is sent to the National Biodiversity Network Atlas. You can download the app here.

The secret lives of toads in trees

July 7, 2022 by Jenny Tse-Leon

New research published today, on 7th July 2022, in PLOS ONE has discovered the extent to which common toads live in trees. It is the first time that the tree climbing potential of amphibians has been investigated at a national scale.

Researchers from Froglife and the University of Cambridge, supported by wildlife charity People’s Trust for Endangered Species (PTES), made the surprising discovery when common toads were found in nest boxes and tree cavities by volunteers who were looking for hazel dormice and bats as part of the National Dormouse Monitoring Programme (NDMP) and the Bat Tree Habitat Key project (BTHK).

Common toads are regarded as typical terrestrial amphibians and as such are known to spend their time both on land and in water during breeding. To date there have only been a handful of documented sightings of common toads in trees.

Consequently, common toads and in general UK amphibians have never been surveyed for in trees, unlike bat and dormouse surveys which specifically target such habitat. This study highlights the importance of sharing data between conservation organisations representing different species, and shows that there’s a lot to learn about wildlife in the UK – even those we think of as well-known.

Nida Al-Fulaij, Conservation Research Manager at PTES said: “We couldn’t believe what we found. We’re used to discovering woodland birds and other small mammals in nest boxes but we hadn’t considered finding amphibians in them.”

Over 50 records of common toads were found in surveys of hazel dormice nest boxes (located 1.5m above ground) and tree cavities usually used by bats. The highest record of a toad was found 3m up a tree. The surveys do not regularly involve looking in tree hollows much higher but there’s a chance that toads might be venturing even further up. Many of the cavities were small or not visible from the ground, so it is unclear how toads are finding them and how difficult it is for them to climb particular trees.

Toads were not found in boxes or tree holes with other species, however they were found using old nests made by dormice and even birds. Whilst 50 records isn’t a huge number, it was comparable to records of other animals we know use trees regularly such as blue tits, suggesting that perhaps toads are much more arboreal than we previously thought. If this is true, it means that common toads could be found in up to 1 in every 100 or so trees in the UK in particularly favourable areas, such as near large ponds or lakes.

Common toad in nest box: Credit Matt Bramwich

The exciting discovery of arboreal behaviour in common toads means that tree cavities might represent an even more important ecological feature than conservationists thought. It highlights the importance of protecting our remaining natural woodland habitats, especially ancient trees with veteran features (such as hollows, cracks and other natural cavities) for all wildlife. Froglife research in 2016 showed that common toads have declined by 68% on average over the last 30 years across the UK.

It isn’t currently known why toads are climbing trees and using nest boxes. Factors could include searching for food, avoiding predators or evading parasites (such as toad fly).

First author Dr Silviu Petrovan, Trustee at Froglife and Senior Researcher at the University of Cambridge says: “These findings are significant and very exciting for our understanding of the ecology and conservation of common toads, one of the most widespread and abundant European amphibians. We know common toads favour woodlands as foraging and wintering habitat, but it appears their association with trees is much more complex that we thought.”

“It also highlights the importance of collaborations and sharing data between conservation groups. Further, targeted research will enable scientists to better understand the reasons for this behaviour and the impact on woodland management for common toads and other amphibians.”

We are calling on members of the public to record any sightings they have of amphibians in trees on our Dragon Finder App (including the details in the comments section of the report) or to contact us directly at: info@froglife.org

What our animals are doing this month…

May 26, 2022 by admin

Late spring or early summer is a good time to be on the lookout for tadpoles! You might spot common frog or common toad tadpoles or, if you are lucky and on the coast, you might even spot natterjack toad tadpoles!

You might have spotted a few tadpoles already as frogs can lay their frogspawn as early as January and it can take two to four weeks for tadpoles to hatch out. As the tadpoles grow, they become faintly speckled with gold/brown and will slowly grow back and front legs!

Common toads breed a little later than common frogs, laying double strings of spawn and wrapping it carefully around vegetation. Again, it will take two to four weeks for the tadpoles to hatch out. To tell the difference between frog and toad tadpoles, you simply have to look at their colour. Toad tadpoles remain jet black and can also form shoals so can be easier to spot.

Natterjack toad spawn. Credit: Matt Wilson

The natterjack toad is confined to just a handful of sites on the coast in the UK and is only found on the Solway Coast in Scotland. Breeding for natterjack toads takes place in March/April but can continue into the early summer. So, depending on the natterjacks in your area, you may see males waiting by the pond edge (making loud rasping noises to attract the females), natterjack toad spawn or even some tadpoles! Natterjack toad spawn is laid in single strings with their tadpoles being smaller than common toad tadpoles and sporting a grey spot on their throat.

Yorkshire Wildlife Tunnel

December 7, 2020 by admin

After a new housing development near Sowerby Bridge was completed, local naturalists started to report seeing large numbers of toads being killed on the newly built road when migrating to their breeding pond. The large size of the toad population had not been noted during the planning stages for the development so it had not been factored in to the plans.

The council took the matter very seriously and approached the developer to install a wildlife tunnel retrospectively. The road was closed to traffic while it was dug up and the tunnel was installed. This will make a massive difference to the toads in the area because they can now pass safely under the road to their breeding pond. A camera has been installed in the tunnel to monitor the usage and to check that the tunnel is working well for toads and other wildlife. This is an excellent result for toads and a demonstration of how we can make a difference for wildlife when developers, the public and the council all work together.

Sign our Wildlife Tunnel Campaign: Give Wildlife the Green Light – Build Wildlife Tunnels to save the Common Toad

Croaking Science: Amphibians in the ‘Anthropause’

October 27, 2020 by Xavier Mahele

On damp nights in the spring in temperate regions, amphibians emerge from their winter hideouts to migrate to their breeding pools. Nothing will stop their drive to reach water to spawn and so they brave a barrage of cars and artificial barriers along their route which often results in them getting squashed.

Amphibians have complex, biphasic life histories which makes their conservation challenging. Most species require high quality aquatic and terrestrial habitats which must both be connected by a transition habitat during migrations (Baldwin et al. 2006).

As urbanisation expands around the world, many aspects of wildlife physiology, movement patterns, population genetics and overall health are affected due to anthropogenic stressors such as habitat loss and artificial light pollution. The unprecedented expansion in transport infrastructure in the past century has had massive impacts on amphibian populations around the world (Beebee 2013, Glista et al. 2008). Roads fragment habitats and cause high mortality as well as being a significant source of chemical contaminants (Petrovan and Schmidt 2016, White et al. 2017, Bird et al. 2019).

Roads which bisect migratory routes severely restrict the dispersal of amphibians between their breeding areas and terrestrial habitat. This can have catastrophic impacts on gene flow and metapopulation dynamics potentially leading to population declines, genetic isolation and even extinction (Fahrig and Rytwinski 2009, Marsh and Trenham 2001). Therefore, mitigating road-kill and habitat fragmentation is a conservation priority (Puky 2005, Beebee 2013, Cushman 2005). Genetic bottlenecks as a result of fragmentation reduce the viability of populations and can leave amphibians more vulnerable to other synergistic environmental stressors such as climate change, pollution and emerging wildlife diseases (Cushman 2005, Laurence and Useche 2009). Urban fragmentation is known to decrease species diversity and abundance and coupled with wider habitat degradation such as edge effects and loss of breeding habitats, can make cities particularly challenging for amphibians (Bickford et al. 2011, Scheffers and Paszkowski 2012). At some field sites, mass mortality on roads can cause complete extirpation of anurans and salamanders within years (Cooke 2011, Hels and Buchwald 2000). With more and more cars on the roads, it is increasingly difficult for amphibians to avoid them.

Temperate amphibians such as the common toad have experienced significant and continuous declines. In the UK it is estimated that 20 tonnes of common toads (Bufo bufo) are killed annually as they migrate across roads to reach their breeding ponds, with up to 13,000 annual mortalities being recorded even at manned amphibian crossings. This has contributed to a 68% decline in their population size in the past 50 years at a rate of 2.26% per year. The severity of the population reduction means that these toads are no longer ‘common’ toads and could soon qualify as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (Petrovan and Schmidt 2016).

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused immense human tragedy as it has spread around the world straining healthcare services and paralysing economic systems. Quarantine restrictions imposed by governments in order to slow the spread of the virus, have caused extraordinary disruption to our globalised society but have created rare opportunities for some wildlife species (Zellmer et al. 2020). As bustling metropolises slowed down they were occupied by usually elusive fauna; wild boars were seen roaming Barcelona’s quiet neighbourhoods, flamingos flocked to New Delhi’s lakes, river otters and puma stalked silent streets in Chile and sea turtles thrived on empty Brazilian beaches. A recent paper by Rutz et al. (2020) coined the term ‘anthropause’ for this rapid and unprecedented “global slowing down of modern human activities, notably travel.” It has resulted in profound short term environmental benefits such as improved air and water quality as well as reduced wildlife disturbance.

Research conducted during the Anthropause has highlighted both known and less known impacts that we are having on the natural world and is providing a unique opportunity to study wildlife populations during a time of reduced human presence all around the world (Forti et al. 2020, Zellmer et al. 2020, Bates et al. 2020). Monitoring the ways wildlife has responded to covid lockdowns in urban areas allows researchers to quantify the impacts human mobility is having on wildlife in the Anthropocene (the term given to our geological age, dominated by human activities) and potentially find strategies to mitigate biodiversity loss (Rutz et al. 2020, Stokstad 2020). This research provides invaluable insight into the mechanisms of human-wildlife interactions that will inform conservation for decades to come.

Lockdowns in spring and summer of 2020 meant fewer vehicles on the road which has significantly decreased road mortality for many species including amphibians. A “roadkill reprieve” this year may have made amphibian migratory journeys much safer according to Goldfarb (2020). A study by Grilo et al. (2020) calculated that 194 million birds and 29 million mammals are killed on European roads each year under normal circumstances while in Brazil, road mortality has superseded hunting to become the “leading cause of direct human caused mortality in terrestrial vertebrates” (Carvalho et al. 2014). This year they may not suffer the same fate. Simply driving less could have been “the biggest conservation action” taken by humanity over the past 50 years according to Fraser Shilling of the Road Ecology Centre at UC Davis and could have potentially saved the lives of 500 million vertebrates (Nguyen et al. 2020).

In March and April as traffic flows dipped by 73% across the US, many creatures received temporary respite from road collisions, with Californian mountain lion fatalities down 58% and a 48% decrease in roadkill deaths in Maine. Although much of the data focuses on large mammals, the same is true for smaller, less mobile animals such as amphibians, snakes and turtles (Katz 2020).

At amphibian crossings this spring in Maine, wood frogs, salamanders and newts were twice as likely to survive than in previous years, which is great news for these sensitive creatures that are very vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. Four amphibians successfully crossed the road for every one squashed this year, half as many as in previous years (Goldfarb 2020, Keim 2020).

Wood frog (Photo Credit: Brian Gratwicke)

A study by Manenti et al. (2020) examined the effects of the COVID-19 lockdown and reduced human disturbance on wildlife in Italy and describes both positive and negative effects on biodiversity conservation. As well as allowing wildlife to explore new habitats and extend their activity periods, species richness and reproductive success increased while roadkill diminished in temporarily quieter areas. Some negative ecological effects included reduced enforcement of regulations, and postponed conservation action such as invasive species management.

A decrease in road traffic led to significantly improved survival of migrating amphibians on Italian roads this spring at eight toad crossings. Data suggests that there was an 80-90% decrease in nocturnal road traffic at these study sites during the anthropause. Four hundred and eight common toads (Bufo bufo) and 16 agile frogs (Rana dalmatina) were recorded as roadkill in 2019, and this dropped to only 38 toads and zero agile frog mortalities in 2020. The median mortality of road killed amphibians at each site decreased from 53 individuals to only one in 2020 (with some sites recording no mortalities) indicating that an increased number of adults made it to their breeding pools this spring giving populations a much needed boost. Manenti et al. (2020) also surveyed transects in Liguria, Northern Italy to quantify the effects of reduced traffic on common wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) and Western green lizards (Lacerta bilineata) and found a similar 10-fold decrease in road mortality.

Many of the conservation benefits the Anthropause created are ephemeral, as traffic returned to baseline levels once economic activity restarted. Although breeding booms this spring may bring some respite to struggling populations, alone, they will not be able to counteract the extreme loss of genetic diversity as a result of population bottlenecks in the past.

The information collected over the Anthropause highlights the need to improve the landscape to make it safer for all wildlife and particularly amphibians (Merrow 2007). If we can alter our transport networks to counter the effects of large-scale urban development and increased transport infrastructure we could go some way to mitigating the catastrophic impact of habitat fragmentation. The observed benefits that limiting road traffic can provide for migrating amphibians could inform more decisions about temporary, focused road closures around the world in the future to replicate this effect and to better conserve endangered amphibian and reptile species (Manteni et al. 2020).

Building fauna tunnels and bridges across dangerous roads to link habitat fragments allows animals to cross safely (Dodd et al. 2004, Gonzalez-Gallina 2018, Vartan 2017). Road mortality decreases by up to 85%-95% with animals responding surprisingly quickly to the change as ecosystems are reconnected (Vartan 2019). Wildlife tunnel projects can mitigate the effects of fragmentation and have been shown to allow amphibians to move successfully between sites bisected by roads. Tunnels and drift fences reduce road mortality, promote habitat connectivity, and allow amphibians to colonise new ponds leading to population increases and expansion into reconnected habitat (Jarvis et al. 2019). These movement corridors also allow roads to be permeable to a host of other wildlife species like reptiles and small mammals (Purky 2005, Jarvis et al. 2019).

The incredible work done by volunteers at amphibian crossings who help migrating amphibians make it across roads (Petrovan and Schmidt 2016) could also contribute to sustaining population increases this spring from quieter road traffic.

COVID-19 has also highlighted how explicitly intertwined human and wildlife health are and the catastrophic impacts of the overexploitation of nature. Emerging wildlife diseases such as chytrid fungi and ranaviruses threaten amphibians around the world and their spread has been catalysed by anthropogenic trade in our globalised world (O’Hanlon et al. 2019). A slowdown in global trade and human flows as a result of COVID-19 could also have gone a way to mitigating the spread of the pathogens that imperil amphibians (Forti et al. 2020). Although this benefit may only be short-lived as economies restart, there is hope that better regulation of the wildlife trade, in order to decrease the chances that future novel zoonotic diseases spill over from wildlife reservoirs in the future, could benefit amphibians too. Since the wildlife trade is responsible for the translocation of many amphibian pathogens (Kolby et al. 2014, O’Hanlon et al. 2018) better regulation and enforcement of the trade in live animals could help stem the spread of emerging amphibian diseases and invasive species (Forti et al. 2020).

The Anthropause provides us with an excellent opportunity to reimagine our relationship with nature and our socio-economic systems so that biodiversity can flourish and acts as a reminder that biodiversity is essential for maintaining human health and wellbeing too.

The disruption to the economic status quo that the pandemic has created gives us a pivotal opportunity to consider a greener, more sustainable future where people and wildlife can thrive. In order to effectively stem biodiversity loss in the Anthropocene, we must use this pivotal moment to plan a green recovery which incorporates wildlife conservation into all economic rebound projects. In the UK this means not viewing the protection of great crested newts as a delay to construction (Howard 2020) but valuing them as integral parts of a plan to balance our economic and environmental ambitions. It is also a perfect opportunity to invest in road mitigation measures such as wildlife tunnels and fauna bridges to reduce the detrimental impact they can have on wildlife populations (Merrow 2007), with the added benefit of being excellent economic multipliers.

November 2020 Croaking Science article by Xavier Mahele

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